Caroline Lee
Peer-Reviewed Journal Article: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2833716
News Article: https://www.foxnews.com/health/living-near-golf-course-linked-parkinsons-risk-study-some-cite-limitations
Background
Parkinson’s disease is a neurological disease that causes parts of the brain, such as the basal ganglia, to deteriorate, leading to declines in muscle movement, balance, and cognitive ability, among other symptoms.1 This occurs because there is a deficiency of dopamine, a neurotransmitter essential for the cells involved in fine-tuning muscle movement to function properly.1 It is the second most common age-related degenerative brain disease and affects at least 1% of people over 60 years old.1 There is no cure for the disease; however, various treatments are available to manage its symptoms.1 These treatments include taking medications to increase or simulate dopamine in the brain.1 Ongoing research on treatments for Parkinson’s involves stem cell transplants, neuron-repair treatments, and gene therapy.1
The disease is caused by a combination of environmental and genetic factors, and the risk for developing it tends to increase with age.1 Seven genes have been linked to the development of Parkinson’s, and these genes can be inherited from one or both parents.1 Certain environmental factors are also associated with a higher risk of developing Parkinson’s, such as exposure to organic pesticides.1, 2, 4 The pesticide rotenone has been found to inhibit mitochondrial complex I, resulting in the selective loss of dopamine-producing neurons, which are associated with hypokinesia and rigidity.2 Another study illustrated that long-term exposure to 53 common pesticides is associated with Parkinson’s due to toxicity to dopamine-producing neurons.4 This illustrates how chronic exposure to common pesticides led to similar symptoms observed in Parkinson’s disease.
As pesticide use continues to enhance the appearance of landscapes, concerns are growing about the risk of pesticide exposure to humans, particularly in relation to Parkinson’s disease.3 Golf courses are a particular concern as they require heavy use of pesticides to maintain their perfectly manicured greens and fairways.3, 5 One study found that the risk of pesticide use on golf courses is eight times higher than in corn fields, suggesting that pesticide use on golf courses is comparable to that in agricultural settings.6 Although pesticide use on golf courses is well-documented, there is limited information on the connections between exposure to pesticides on golf courses and Parkinson’s disease.
Peer-Reviewed Journal Article
Researchers at the Mayo Clinic and Barrow Neurological Institute led a case-control study to investigate whether living near golf courses was associated with an increased risk of developing Parkinson’s disease. This study was motivated by previous research that indicated that exposure to pesticides is linked to an increased risk of developing Parkinson’s; however, few studies have explored pesticide exposure from golf courses. The authors also considered that drinking water contamination is a potential route of exposure, so they explored groundwater vulnerability and municipal well locations.
The authors addressed these knowledge gaps through their population-based study. They used data from the Rochester Epidemiology Project between 1991 and 2015, analyzing 419 incident cases of Parkinson’s and 5113 matched controls across southern Minnesota and Western Wisconsin. Each case of Parkinson’s was matched to multiple controls of the same age and sex to account for the limited residency information provided for controls. Medical records were used to confirm the Parkinson’s diagnosis and when symptoms began. To calculate accurate distances between individuals’ residual homes and golf courses, data on the location of 139 golf courses within and outside the study region were obtained from Esri Business Analyst. The median number of addresses per person was one, and the median time spent living at this address was 18.5 years. This suggests that the study participants did not frequently change their residential addresses.
Figure 1. Overhead Satellite Image of Golf Course Map With Polygon Boundaries. Golf course center points were converted to polygon boundaries outlining the course using manual digitization and satellite imagery for the year 2022 from ESRI, Maxar, and Earthstar Geographics. Imagery from Esri, Maxar, Earthstar Geographics, and the GIS User Community, 2024.3
The authors conducted a statistical analysis using piecewise linear splines to examine the relationship between Parkinson’s disease and proximity to a golf course. This technique accounted for differences in the association at varying distances (1, 1-2, 2-3, 3-6, and 6+ miles) from a golf course. They used logistic regression to fit the data with Parkinson’s disease as the outcome and distance to the golf course as the exposure variable. To ensure that the results were based solely on the distance to a golf course and not on other factors, the authors adjusted for age, sex, race, ethnicity, year of index, household income, commenting patterns, and healthcare use. A secondary analysis compared water service area characteristics and the risk of developing Parkinson’s disease.
Figure 2. Nonlinear Association Between Odds of Parkinson Disease (PD) and Proximity to a Golf Course. Cubic spline fit for the relative risk of Parkinson Disease by proximity to nearest golf course, adjusted for age, sex, race, ethnicity, median household income, rural or urban classification, and health care utilization. aOR indicates adjusted odds ratio; shaded areas represent 95% CIs.3
The study found a positive relationship between living in proximity to a golf course and risk of Parkinson’s. When proximity to a golf course was modeled as a categorical variable, the odds of developing Parkinson’s were 126% higher for those living within one mile of a golf course versus those living six miles away. Interestingly, the odds are higher for living between one and two miles away (198% higher). The greatest risk of Parkinson’s disease is for those living between one and three miles from a golf course, and as the distance from a golf course increased, the risk of Parkinson’s disease decreased. Furthermore, the greatest risk of Parkinson’s was also in water service areas within a golf course and in vulnerable groundwater regions. Those with water service areas near a golf course had almost double the odds of developing Parkinson’s disease compared to those with water service areas not near a golf course. Vulnerable groundwater increased the odds of Parkinson’s by 82% compared to nonvulnerable regions with a golf course and 92% compared to areas without a golf course. These results suggest that exposure to pesticides, which may lead to Parkinson’s disease, could occur through contaminated water. Ultimately, this study suggests that pesticides applied to golf courses may contribute to the incidence of Parkinson’s disease among nearby residents. The lack of association between Parkinson’s within 3 miles of the nearest golf course suggests a ceiling effect of pesticide exposure when higher levels of pesticides are present.
News article
Melissa Rudy’s Fox News article titled “Living near a golf course is linked to Parkinson’s risk in new study as some cite limitations” summarizes the findings from the peer-reviewed journal article by using statistical data and quotations from the first author. The article briefly explains how this data was collected, stating that it was a case-controlled study based on data from the Rochester Epidemiology Project. It mentions the number of individuals with Parkinson’s who were analyzed (419) but fails to include the number of controls. However, a quotation from the lead author of the study, Krzyzanowski, is used to emphasize that the study accounted for other factors that could lead to an increased risk of Parkinson’s, so that their analysis focused solely on proximity to golf courses. There is also a quote from Krzyzanowski and another professional in the field, Dr. Mary Ann Picone, who was not involved in the study, both advocating for future research specifically on pesticides, as this study was a correlational study on proximity to golf courses and risk of Parkinson’s disease.
Following this, there are two bolded sections, titled “Potential limitations” and “Industry spokespeople respond.” In the “Potential limitations” section, Rudy emphasizes that the main issue with the study is that it is a correlational study. Thus, it is impossible to quantify the amount of pesticide exposure in each individual. Other limitations are noted, including the study’s limited applicability to different parts of the US and the fact that multiple factors contribute to an increased risk of Parkinson’s. In the “Industry spokespeople respond” section, Rudy uses quotations from spokespeople from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America and the EPA to emphasize the previous limitations discussed and express that pesticides are not harmful to humans. The article concludes with a quotation advocating for individuals to continue enjoying the game of golf.
Review
The Fox News article is well-written and does an excellent job of explaining the study's results.
Additionally, I appreciated that the article includes quotations from the authors and other experts in the field. This helped Rudy explain the study's findings at the beginning of the article. However, Rudy overemphasizes the study's limitations through bolded phrases and skeptical language, rendering the news article misleading and dismissing the study's results. While I agree with Rudy that correlation is not causation, and that is a limitation, this is a credible study from some of the top research institutions, and I think the association between golf courses and Parkinson’s disease is a worthwhile finding. This skepticism of the study began in the first sentence of the news article when Rudy uses the term “surprising” to describe the study.7 In my opinion, the study’s findings are not surprising, as previous research has linked pesticide exposure to an increased risk of developing Parkinson’s, and golf courses are known to use substantial amounts of pesticides. By bolding phrases such as “Potential limitations,” and the quotation from the EPA spokesperson that says, "Pesticides registered by the EPA do not … create unreasonable adverse effects to human health and the environment when used according to label directions," Rudy undermines the statistically significant findings from the article. Given the conservative audience of Fox News, I am not surprised that Rudy is skeptical of the study’s findings.
I rate the news article a 3/10 because of the misleading information that rejects the importance of correlating Parkinson’s with proximity to golf courses. However, some points are given because I appreciated the use of quotations from the study’s authors and other professionals.
References
(1) Cleveland Clinic. Parkinson’s Disease. 2022. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8525-parkinsons-disease-an-overview (accessed).
(2) Betarbet, R.; Sherer, T. B.; MacKenzie, G.; Garcia-Osuna, M.; Panov, A. V.; Greenamyre, J. T. Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson's disease. Nature Neuroscience 2000, 3 (12), 1301–1306. DOI: 10.1038/81834.
(3) Krzyzanowski, B.; Mullan, A. F.; Dorsey, E. R.; Chirag, S. S.; Turcano, P.; Camerucci, E.; Bower, J. H.; Savica, R. Proximity to Golf Courses and Risk of Parkinson Disease. JAMA Network Open 2025, 8 (5), e259198–e259198. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.9198 (accessed 11/8/2025).
(4) Paul, K. C.; Krolewski, R. C.; Lucumi Moreno, E.; Blank, J.; Holton, K. M.; Ahfeldt, T.; Furlong, M.; Yu, Y.; Cockburn, M.; Thompson, L. K.; et al. A pesticide and iPSC dopaminergic neuron screen identifies and classifies Parkinson-relevant pesticides. Nature Communications 2023, 14 (1), 2803. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38215-z.
(5) Doherty, J. J.; Putnam, R. A.; DeFlorio, B. A.; Clark, J. M. Golfer Exposure to Traditional Pesticides Following Application to Turfgrass. ACS Agricultural Science & Technology 2024, 4 (4), 414–423. DOI: 10.1021/acsagscitech.3c00419.
(6) Bekken, M. A. H.; Schimenti, C. S.; Soldat, D. J.; Rossi, F. S. A novel framework for estimating and analyzing pesticide risk on golf courses. Science of The Total Environment 2021, 783, 146840. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146840.
(7) Rudy, M. Living near a golf course is linked to Parkinson’s risk in new study as some cite limitations. Fox News, 2025. https://www.foxnews.com/health/living-near-golf-course-linked-parkinsons-risk-study-some-cite-limitations (accessed).
Hi Caroline! Great analysis and choice of news article and peer reviewed paper. I appreciated your overview of Parkinson's disease in your background section and it sets up the reader well for your subsequent analysis. It was also interesting to me how the news article wrote so conservatively that it became misleading as they focused on the limitations of the study. This differs greatly from the other news articles shared within our class whose shortcomings lay in over-sensationalizing the findings of their studies.
ReplyDeleteHi Helen, thanks for your comment. I was excited to find a news article that was different than most of the ones we have discussed in class. I think it is interesting to see how different news sources portray environmental research to fit their narrative. By comparing this article to other ones we have discussed in class, the importance of which sources are used, and how authors use framing to tell the story.
DeleteHi Caroline, thank you for this post! I think it's fascinating that there is a correlation between golf courses and Parkinson's, not just on physical proximity but also water treatment plant proximities as well. Golf courses notoriously use insane amounts of pesticides to keep their greens pristine for playing, but the pesticides they use also notoriously pose human health risks. While the study does have limitations, especially because correlation is not causation, it is very ironic that Fox News had spokespeople for Golf Companies claim that the pesticides pose no health risks whatsoever. It's a clear bias in their reporting, especially when they end the article with a statement encouraging people to continue enjoying playing golf.
ReplyDeleteHi Elena, thanks for your comment. The spokespeople who spoke to Fox News about this article were biased sources, which, in my opinion, undermines the validity of the author's skepticism toward the journal article. It is essential to use quotations from unbiased outside sources that are not the study's authors to accurately represent the study; however, the author of the news article does not do that. The quotations from the author of the journal article did a solid job of being transparent about the article's shortcomings.
DeleteHi Caroline! Really interesting topic and you wrote an thorough and articulate analysis. I agree with your rating of the news article. The language is definitely trying to convince the readers to agree with the opinion that the author has on the issue instead of simply communicating the findings of the study. I think that a good approach to communicating these findings would be to focus on the importance of reducing pesticides in golf courses, specifically the ones that have been proven to impact Parkinson's. The shifting of the blame onto golf courses themselves is likely what sparked controversy from the Fox News author, and refocusing the point of the research to be around the dangers of pesticides instead of golf courses could be a better route to circumventing potential opposition. There are definitely more negative health impacts from pesticides than only Parkinson's, and reducing their use overall would be beneficial for a range of human health problems. However, I do think that places that use an overwhelming amount of pesticides (like golf courses) should be held accountable by the public, and journalism that brings that information to light is the first step in making that happen. Hopefully another news outlet without such strong biases will report on this issue!
ReplyDeleteHi Caroline! Thanks for your analysis of such an interesting topic. I went into reading this with the knowledge that golf courses are sometimes viewed negatively due to their large sizes and amounts of resources required to maintain them. However, I had not ever considered other effects like the one detailed in your peer-reviewed article! I agree with your 3/10 rating of the article. After reading the research article's conclusion that people who live within close proximity to golf courses and/or who live in areas with water services near golf courses both showed increased risk of Parkinson's Disease, I found it shocking that the news article's author seemed to try to discredit the study's findings by way of including a quote from an EPA spokesperson. To me, it felt like the news article spent more time trying to illegitimize the study's findings rather than reporting them, which was extremely disappointing. I think it is reasonable to make the assumption that a significant amount of the article's readers will not read the scientific article, and will instead take the news article at face value. Because of this, it is concerning to me that the author of the news article presented the information with such a clear bias against the study's findings.
ReplyDeleteHi Madison, thanks for your comment. I agree with your thought that many of the article's readers will not read the scientific article and will focus on the limitations that the news article emphasizes. There are some comments at the end of the news article from some of the readers that illustrated this biased thinking that were interesting to read. One comment said, "This "study" is nonsense. Being old is linked with just about every disease out there. And the people who live by golf courses are retired and older in general." Whoever wrote this comment clearly didn't read the journal article because the study explicitly accounted for age and other factors in their analysis and had 5113 controls for 419 incident cases of Parkinson’s to reduce uncertainties in their findings.
DeleteHi Caroline, thank you for sharing your analysis! Like you said, the link between Parkinson's and golf courses shouldn't be surprising, given that pesticides have been linked to the disease in many past studies. I think it is unfortunate how the author of the news article portrayed the peer-reviewed article, as they show a strong bias against the study. From my perspective, the authors conducted a high-quality study and did their best to eliminate any confounding variables. While correlation does not equal causation, the results corroborate those of many other studies and shouldn't be dismissed. I don't think people should necessarily give up golf or move away from golf courses, but they should be aware of the potential dangers of pesticide exposure, regardless of their source. The author of the news article instead uses the results to incite skepticism in the reader, which is a dangerous use of their position as a journalist. Journalists have a responsibility to accurately communicate scientific findings to a broad audience, something this author did not fulfill.
ReplyDeleteHi Sophie, thanks for your comment! I completely agree with your point that people should be aware of the dangers of pesticide exposure, regardless of the source. I hope that studies like this one can be used to inform the public, enabling them to be more informed about their own health risks. While I don't think people should use this study as a reason to move houses if they live near a golf course, they could use it as a way to be more informed about their health and be aware of potential Parkinson's symptoms to start treatments early. I also think you have an excellent point about the role of news journalists to inform, not necessarily to convince. This news article isn't an opinion piece, it is reporting on a real scientific study.
DeleteGreat job, Caroline! I would agree with your critique of the Fox News article. You did a great job pointing out how the media’s framing can shape public perception of scientific findings. By emphasizing “limitations” and giving weight to industry voices, the article undermines credible research and discourages readers from taking these risks seriously. I think that this kind of framing is a problem when it comes to environmental health reporting. The question I keep running into however is, how do news articles go about including the limitations of the study and reporting the differences between correlation and causation in a way that the public will understand. How do you suppose the media can report correlational studies in a way that highlights the scientific causation effect? As you pointed out, the study’s findings aren’t really “surprising” given what we know about pesticides and neurological diseases—it’s more of a confirmation that everyday environments can have hidden consequences. I also wonder how future research might expand on this by directly measuring pesticide exposure in groundwater or air samples near golf courses.
ReplyDeleteHi Sarea, thanks for your comment! Honestly, I think the news article author did a good job of initially explaining the limitations by using quotations from one of the lead authors of the peer-reviewed journal, which highlighted that the study was a correlation, not causation. My issue with the news article is that the author continued to express this point from a skeptical perspective and used biased sources, such as the EPA and a golf representative, to support this skepticism. I think the media can emphasize that the correlation between two variables is still valid information and is an opportunity for future research to explore if causation is involved. I think future research could utilize non-targeted mass spectrometry to analyze water samples from around a golf course, including drinking water and run off, for example, to test for the presence of these pollutants. Other studies could explore the effects of these pollutants to see if they have similar behavior on dopamine-producing neurons as previous research has found for other pollutants.
DeleteHi Caroline, good job on your post. I agree with your criticism of the Fox News article. It is interesting how media outlets tend to both over and under-emphasize the significance of a given research study depending on the topic in question. Similar to the extent that the author highlighted the limitations of this study, when covering issues that they want to exaggerate, authors may entirely ignore the limitations or misrepresent the implications given within a research study. This is why attempting to understand the goals of an article is an important aspect of media literacy. I am curious if you have any insight or guess as to the motivation for downplaying such potentially significant findings. I agree with your assessment that the strongly conservative audience of Fox News likely influenced this representation, but I wonder if there is a more specific answer as to what aspect of this research poses a threat to the perspectives of the author/audience.
ReplyDeleteHi Caroline, great analysis! I enjoyed reading about this research article because I have heard about health effects of living near golf courses but I didn't know the specifics.
ReplyDeleteI was wondering what other groups of people might also be regularly exposed to pesticides that it might be interesting to look for another Parkinson's correlation?
Did the authors suggest why the odds of Parkinson's were found to be higher between 1-2 miles away than within 1 mile?
Also did the authors explain if the increased risk of Parkinson's is more likely to come from the water or from exposure in the air?
Hi Ava, thanks for your comment. Other groups, such as agricultural workers, experience health effects due to pesticide exposure. One study I found also used a case-controlled study concluded that using herbicides frequently does increase one's risk of Parkinson's.
DeleteFor your second question, the authors did not directly address this; however, they mentioned that the main takeaway from the study is that the highest risk of developing Parkinson's is associated with living within 1-3 miles of a golf course.
The authors concluded that the increased risk of Parkinson's is more likely to come from water, as they found that the greatest risk of Parkinson’s was in water service areas within a golf course and in vulnerable groundwater regions. However, they note that exposure to airborne pesticides is also an issue. I think the airborne pesticides would affect those who live near a golf course, so airborne exposure to pesticides from golf courses would be related to their conclusion that living 1-3 miles from a golf course leads to a higher risk of Parkinson's
Semchuk KM, Love EJ, Lee RG. Parkinson's disease and exposure to agricultural work and pesticide chemicals. Neurology. 1992 Jul;42(7):1328-35. doi: 10.1212/wnl.42.7.1328. PMID: 1620342.
Hi Ava, I loved reading your article. It does suck that Fox News exploited this study being a case control study which is on the lower end of validity, but can definitely call for study with an experimental design this could totally be done with mice, but "mice brains damaged by pesticides" doesn't get clicks. It does suck that these people did likely suffer damage because of exposure to a pollutant. Framing in media is a huge deal, and stuff like this is the reason the NIH funding is being cut. Mayo clinic is also a majorly reputable source which but also the amount of article that is dedicated to exploiting a case control study design is kind of misleading. Every case control study has these limitations. Maybe a publication linked to an experimental design would silence the haters. Also a case control is definitely more accurate that just a case study too. :)
ReplyDelete